Click on the report title for the full article in PDF. (If your browser has an Acrobat Reader plug-in, the article will
show on screen and you can read or save to your disk; otherwise it should download the PDF file to your disk.)
Peer-reviewed V2G articles
Kempton, W. and Steven Letendre. 1997. "Electric Vehicles
as a New Source of Power for Electric Utilities" Transportation
Research 2(3): 157-175. This is the first description of the key concepts of V2G:
That the potential resource exceeds all current electric generation by
many times, that the value is not in bulk power but in responding when needed,
and that the driver sets limits based on driving need within which the grid operator dispatches based on time of electric system need.
This first article is before we called the iceas "V2G" and the analysis is based primarily on peak power, which subsequent work (below) shows
to be a lower-value market for V2G power.
Kempton, W. and Toru Kubo. 2000. "Electric-drive Vehicles for Peak Power in Japan"
Energy Policy 28(1): 9-18. Also available in our Japanese translation.
The Kempton-Kubo analysis is for Tokyo, based on existing power rates and Japanese driving patterns.
Letendre, Steven and W. Kempton, 2002. "The V2G Concept: A New Model for Power?"
Public Utilities Fortnightly 140(4): 16-26. (Click title to read. Or, to see the full issue go to
the Public Utilities Fortnightly web page for Feb 2002 for PUF subscribers,
or LEXIS/NEXIS or WESTLAW.) Also available in our
Japanese translation. This article is our best short
summary (8 pages) of the V2G concept, incorporating findings from our CARB-LADWP report (below) that show the value of ancillary services to be far higher than that of peak
power. This article is written for an electric-utility audience and thus provides less explanation of power types and markets than our
articles written for a transportation audience.
Kempton, W. and J. Tomić. 2005. "Vehicle to Grid Fundamentals: Calculating Capacity and Net Revenue"
J. Power Sources Volume 144, Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 268-279. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.12.025. Final copy with pages and issue number is available via
Science Direct (full article PDF copy requires subscription or payment).
This is our best exposition of the fundamentals of both the vehicle fleet and electric markets. The basic 17 equations of V2G are derived.
Correction to published version: Page 275, Table 3, line 3: should be "27.4 kWh" not "27.4 $/kWh".
Kempton, W. and J. Tomić. 2005. "Vehicle to Grid Implementation: from stabilizing the
grid to supporting large-scale renewable energy".
J. Power Sources Volume 144, Issue 1, 1 June 2005, Pages 280-294. doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2004.12.022. Final copy with pages and issue number is available via
Science Direct (full article copy requires subscription or payment). Overall size of V2G in
comparison to electric generation and load, control strategies and business models for implementation, analysis of V2G as storage for large-scale renewable electricity.
Appendix gives practical considerations and capacity of power connections.
Kempton, W. and A. Dhanju, "Electric Vehicles with V2G: Storage for Large-Scale Wind Power".
Windtech International 2 (2), pp 18-21 (March 2006).
A brief technical introduction to V2G as storage for wind power. Analyzes the duration of low-wind events
as a measure of storage needs, and compares national-level potential V2G power with average load in 11 countries.
This article appeared in the March 2006 issue of Windtech International and is displayed with permission.
Copyright 2006 by Siteur Publications.
Letendre. Steven, Paul Denholm, and Peter Lilienthal, 2006, "Electric and Hybrid Vehicles: New Load or New Resource?"
Public Utilies Fortnightly, pp 28-37 (December 2006).
Review of V2G principles and new analysis of how it affects the load curve of electric utilities, also brief analysis of how plug power capacity affects V2G revenue. Clear and readable. Sidebar interview with CEO of Tesla Motors.
The subtitle, inserted by the editors of this utility industry journal, is "The industry must join a growing chorus in calling for new technology."
Original source is www.fortnightly.com.
(This article is coauthored by employees of the U.S. Government and is not subject to copyright.)
Jasna Tomić and Willett Kempton, proof (with minor errors): "Using fleets of electric-drive vehicles for grid support"
Journal of Power Sources, doi:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2007.03.010.
Examines two actual electric vehicle fleets, their operating cycles, and the value of revenue from these vehicles if they were equipped for V2G power (the fleets examined were electric but not equipeed for V2G).
This is a realistic analysis of real fleets in use today, and gives the revenue potential in the electric markets in which they operate.
Reports on V2G
Kempton, Tomic, Letendre, Brooks & Lipman. 2001. Vehicle-to-Grid Power: Battery, Hybrid, and Fuel Cell Vehicles
as Resources for Distributed Electric Power in California. UCD-ITS-RR-01-03. For an executive summary, click on HTML or
PDF, or click on the title above for the full report. This CARB/LADWP-sponsored report
is specific to California, yet it has comprehensive analysis on V2G, some not in subsequent publications.
This was the first full coverage of all three vehicle types--battery, fuel cell and
hybrid vehicles, across four power markets--baseload, peak, spinning reserves, and regulation services.
The approach and formulae developed and explained here are the basis for our subsequent analysis. (Although
our equation notation was rationalized and standardized in our 2005 and later publications. Very
brief summary of economic results: Battery vehicles (also called "electric vehicles" or
EVs) with telematics and power electronics designed to allow V2G
could earn $2,000 - $3,000 per year by selling a form of power called
"regulation services." Fuel cell and hybrid vehicles
could earn $1,500 - $2,500 per year by selling electricity as
"spinning reserves." We found that V2G is economically valuable in the CalISO market for these forms of
electric power that go on briefly when needed. Vehicles do not appear to be
economically competitive for "baseload power", that is, constant
power generation, which has lower value per kWh and more drain on the
battery, hydrogen, or fuel tank.
Brooks, Alec, 2002. "Vehicle-to-Grid Demonstration Project:
Grid Regulation Ancillary Service with a Battery Electric Vehicle" Report, AC Propulsion, December 2002.
Sponsored by CARB. In addition to the test results, this report has a thorough analysis of regulation services
and how V2G can provide them. From the abstract: A test vehicle was fitted with a
bidirectional grid power interface and wireless internet connectivity, allowing power flow to or
from the vehicle to be dispatched remotely. Power dispatch
commands were sent wirelessly to the vehicle at 4-second intervals, and the vehicle response was
monitored and recorded. Results showed that wireless data transmission times were within ISO
system requirements, and that the energy throughput through the battery due to regulation is
similar to that of typical daily driving. The value created by the service exceeds the battery wear
out costs under most operating assumptions.
Gage, Thomas B., 2003. "Final Report
Development and Evaluation of a Plug-in HEV with Vehicle-to-Grid Power Flow" Report, AC Propulsion, December 2003.
This report describes
a tri-fuel vehicle which was designed, built, and tested, under CARB Grant Number ICAT 01-2. The prototype vehicle is refueled and run on electricity or natural
gas, or gasoline, using a series hybrid. From the abstract:
The project vehicle provides 35 miles of battery-only range with highway performance capability so operation on grid electricity can eliminate operating emissions and one or more cold engine starts per day.
The project vehicle can re-charge its traction battery from the grid in less than one hour. The hybrid power unit in the project vehicle can sustain battery charge at highway speeds providing long distance travel unconstrained by battery range.
The hybrid power unit in the project vehicle can also generate electricity while the vehicle is parked.
In this stationary mode, the hybrid power unit can operate on gasoline stored on the vehicle or on low-pressure natural gas piped to the vehicle from the gas main.
While parked, the power generated can be exported as alternating current electricity either to the grid or to stand-alone loads.
Interactions between the vehicle and the grid, including power export, can be controlled from remote locations via wireless internet connection.
These capabilities are demonstrated in stationary testing and 6000 miles of on-road use.
Conference presentations and papers on V2G
Presentations from The Seattle Electric Vehicle to Grid Forum (PDFs), also
Press release.
This link is to a page of other selected conference
presentations and draft papers on V2G:
Other conference presentations
and draft papers.
AC Propulsion - Designs vehicle power electronics;
is already selling units with V2G built-in. This web site also has
additional technical analysis of V2G.
CARB ZEV Program - California's Zero-Emission Vehicle program.
EDTA - Electric Drive Transportation Association; links to many other sites.
EV World - "The World of Electric, Hybrid & Fuel Cell Vehicles"; links to interviews on V2G with
Alec Brooks
and Willett Kempton.
California Cars Initiative - Discussion of plug-in hybrids and V2G; links to many other sites.
Wikipedia - Free Encyclopedia entry for "Vehicle to grid"; we do not endorse
all of their statements but it gives a basic definition and more links
Advanced Vehicle Innovations - Plug-in page, many links to plug-in vehicle projects.
Offshore Wind Power - The answer to "But where will we get the electricity to power these grid-connected cars?"
Willett Kempton - Kempton's faculty web site.
